International relations war Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International relations war - Essay Example Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy defines war as â€Å"an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political communities† (Orend 1). From these definitions war can occur between people, cultures and states. War is usually aimed at having power over the other person. An overall definition of war is continuous violence between groups in which state military forces take part on one side in case of a civil war or both sides in case of interstate wars. There are different types of war which are triggered by different situations. Hegemonic war also known as global war or world war or general war is a war aimed at controlling or conquering the whole world. It last happened during the Second World War. Where a state attempts to conquer and occupy another state, it is referred to as total war. The aim of the state is to reach the capital city and force the government to surrender. The whole of the enemy’s family is perceived as a legitimate target. After conquering, the victor replaces the subdued government with its own choice. An example of total war is the 2003 Iraq war. In limited war, the conqueror aims at doing other things apart from conquering and occupying the state. It is a common phenomenon in border wars, after occupying the state it wants, it may stop there to defend its gains. An example of such a war is the U.S. war against Iraq in 1991; U.S. recaptured Kuwait but did not go further to topple Saddam Hussein’s government. Civil war occurs between some groups within a state with the aim of creating, or preventing a new government for the whole state or some parts of it. Guerilla war is operated by illegal forces that are hidden by civilian population. They rarely confront an enemy; instead they harass and punish the enemy for a long time till the enemy limits its controls. Finally the enemy loosens its grip on the territory and liberates it to the guerrilla army (Eckbaull 1). A simple definition of strategy can be a means of solving

A Prescriptive Agenda for School Restructuring Essay

A Prescriptive Agenda for School Restructuring - Essay Example In their study School Restructuring as a Policy Agenda, Mussoline and Shouse (2001) highlights this relationship - between school restructuring and their consequent effect - by asking, "[t]o what extent should one expect the technical reforms linked to restructuring to produce consistent achievement effects across all types of schools" (p. 45). Taking a similar position, this essay will argue that school restructuring will not be successful, especially in less affluent schools with low socioeconomic status, if restructuring practices are reduced to a list of prescriptive policy agendas imposed upon schools due to the effect contextual factors have on the success and eventual outcome of restructuring. Looking into the literature of school reform, there has been numerous practice identified by different schools of thought outlining ways for restructuring schools. From such literature, it is apparent that each restructuring practice have its own set of requirements for successful implementation. On the other hand, each school also has its own set of organizational and instructional characteristics that determine its ability to implement changes within the overall school structure which affect the effectiveness of school restructuring (p. 47). ... and Murphy's study entitled "The Social contest of Effective Schools," Mussoline and Shouse identifies principal-teacher relations, decision-making, and parental involvement as factors that distinguishes a school's organizational and instructional capabilities (Mussoline and Shouse, 2001, 47). These factors also distinguish schools between high and low socioeconomic statuses (SES). According to Shouse, given the distinction between schools with low and high SES, there are certain kinds of restructuring practices that did not yield the same beneficial results when implemented in low SES schools if compared to schools with high SES (p. 48). Contextual factors therefore have a hand in altering the effects of restructuring practices among schools with low SES. Hence, it is only logical to conclude that prescribing a single policy agenda for school restructuring may not be beneficial for the school system, in general, and for low SES schools, in particular, if not all schools can positive ly benefit from the prescribed restructuring practices. Contextual factors have significant effects on school restructuring in two ways: first, given the lack of social resources among low SES schools, these schools do not have the necessary safety nets present among high SES schools that reduces the risks of flawed, poorly executed, or highly complex instructional practices (p. 49). As Mussoline and Shouse argues, schools with high SES have more responsive students that increases the positive effects from restructured practices, especially those that prescribe constructivist and student-centered reforms. In addition, the academically oriented support structures present in these communities also helps reinforce the restructuring practices being implemented. Together, student